Abstract
In the early modern period, the reception of Galen’s treatise On the Formation of the Foetus drove embryological study. When in On Formative Power (De virtute formativa, 1506, 1524) Niccolò Leoniceno (1428–1524) reconstructs Galen’s view, he acknowledges the importance of the latter’s original interpretation of the similarity between the formation of the fetus and the formation of plants. While rebuking Aristotle on this issue, Galen’s uses of the animal-plant analogy importantly help specify the questions of embryology and the study of the basic functions of life. Accordingly, in the beginning animals are plants – that is, a temporal beginning concerning the first stages of embryological life and a functional beginning, insofar as animals perform vegetal operations in the liver. This original interpretation surfaces again in seventeenth century medicine, when physicians developed the animal-plant analogy in their medical studies, following the Galenic tenet, and using it to ground a functional identity between bodies. In this chapter, after a brief reconstruction of Galen’s interpretation of such a continuity, I explore the texts of a few seventeenth century physicians who re-appropriated and reinterpreted Galen’s theory, ultimately revealing the flexibility of the latter’s medical science and its influence on the early moderns, but also anticipating the emergence of comparative anatomy in later seventeenth-century medicine.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
Although I am not dealing with the editions of Galen that scholars used in the Renaissance, a good source for this is Durling 1961.
- 4.
On this issue, see Kovacic 2001, 79.
- 5.
See Kovacic 2001, 195.
- 6.
For clearer and broader reflections on this issue, see Vinkesteijn 2021.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
See Joubert 1587, 154–156.
- 10.
- 11.
The French text is: ‘La semence vit donc, mais à la manière des plantes’.
- 12.
The French text is: ‘l’embryon les premiers jours n’a pas besoin de l’action du coeur: car vivant à la maniere des plantes, il n’a point mestier ny du battement du Coeur, ny de la respiration, ny de l’influence de la chaleur; il s’entrentient assez par la chaleur & son esprit inné & naturel’. (Italics added.)
- 13.
The French text is: ‘mais que ceux [les animaux] qui sont imparfaits & exangues peuvent vivre quelque temps sans aliment. Ainsi quelques petits animaux demeurent tout l’hyver dans leurs cahcots sans manger: & les plantes ne se nourrisent pas l’hyver’.
- 14.
On the reception of Aristotle in the philosophical understanding of generation, see Blank 2010.
- 15.
Cf. Carvallo 2016.
- 16.
Riolan 1628–1629, 302: ‘Galien, au 4. de l’usage des part. Chap. 13 enseigne que le sentiment du foye n’est pas bien exquis, en ces termes. La nature a donné au foye un nerf bien petit, aussi ne luy en fallout-il point ny pour mouvement aucun particulier, ny pour aucune sorte de sentiment, pour autant qu’il est luy-meme le principe de telles sortes de facultez, & que les veines à qui il donne l’origine ont le pouvoir d’elles-memes de faire des semblables actions en la meme sorte que les plantes’. (Italics in the text.)
- 17.
- 18.
See Harvey 1981, 40, 63.
- 19.
On the vegetative soul in Harvey, see Giglioni 2021.
- 20.
References
Aristotle. 1942. De generatione animalium. Generation of animals. Trans. and ed. Arthur Leslie Peck. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Baldassarri, Fabrizio. 2018. Descartes’ bio-medical study of plants: Vegetative activities, soul, and power. Early Science and Medicine 23: 509–529.
———. 2019. The mechanical life of plants: Descartes on botany. British Journal for the History of Science 52: 41–63.
———. 2020. Botany and medicine. In Encyclopedia of early modern philosophy and the sciences, ed. Charles T. Wolfe and Dana Jalobeanu. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20791-9_272-1.
Baldassarri, Fabrizio, and Andreas Blank. 2021. Missing a soul that endows bodies with life: Introduction. In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 1–12. Cham: Springer.
Bigotti, Fabrizio. 2021. Vegetable life: Applications, implications, and transformations of a classical concept (1500–1700). In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 383–406. Cham: Springer.
Blank, Andreas. 2010. Biomedical ontology and the metaphysics of composite substances, 1540–1670. Munich: Philosophia Verlag.
Brancher, Dominique. 2015. Quand l’esprit vient aux plantes. Botanique sensible et subversion libertine (XVIe–XVIIe siècles). Genève: Droz.
Brockliss, Laurence. 1993. Seeing and believing: Contrasting attitudes towards observational autonomy among French Galenists in the first half of the seventeenth century. In Medicine and the five senses, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter, 69–84. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carpenter, Amber D. 2021. Embodied intelligent (?) souls: Plants in Plato’s Timaeus. In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 35–53. Cham: Springer.
Carvallo, Sarah. 2016. La circulation sanguine comme pierre de touche: Harvey, Riolan, Descartes. Revue de la société de philosophie des sciences 3: 85–92.
Casseri, Giulio Cesare. 1627. Tabulae anatomicae LXXIIX omnes novae nec ante hac visae. Venice: Evangelistam Deuchinum.
Čermáková, Lucie. 2018. Athanasius Kircher and vegetal magnetism: Analogy as a method. Early Science and Medicine 23: 487–508.
Corcilius, Klaus. 2021. Souls, parts of the soul, and the definition of vegetative capacity in Aristotle’s De anima. In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 13–34. Cham: Springer.
Donato, Maria Pia. 2019. Galen in an age of change (1650–1820). In Brill’s companion to the reception of Galen, ed. Petros Bouras-Vallianatos and Barbara Zipster, 487–507. Boston: Brill.
du Laurens, André. 1593. Apologia pro Galeno et impugnatio novae ac falsae demonstrationis de communion vasorum cordis in foetus. Paris.
———. 1621. Opera omnia. Paris.
Duchesneau, François. 1998. Les modèles du vivant de Descartes à Leibniz. Paris: Vrin.
Durling, Richard J. 1961. A Chronological Census of Renaissance Editions and Translations of Galen. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 24 (3–4): 230–305.
Fabricius ab Acquapendente, Hieronymus. 1967. The embryological treatises: The formation of the egg and of the chick. The formed fetus, ed. Howard B. Adelmann, 2 vols. Ithaca-New York: Cornell University Press.
Fabrizi d’Acquapendente, Girolamo. 1621. De formatione ovi et pulli. Padua: Luigi Benci.
———. 1624. Tractatus quatuor. Frankfurt: Palthenius.
Favaretti Camposampiero, Matteo. 2020. Galenism in Early Modern Philosophy and Medicine. In Encyclopedia of early modern philosophy and the sciences, ed. Charles T. Wolfe and Dana Jalobeanu. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-20791-9_286-1.
French, Roger. 1994. The natural philosophy of William Harvey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Galen. 1984. De placitis Hippocratis et Platonis. On the doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato. Trans. and ed. Philippe De Lacy. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
———. 1992. De semine. On Semen. Trans. and ed. Philippe De Lacy. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
———. 1997. De foetuum formatione. In Selected works, ed. Peter Singer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
———. 2001. De foetuum formatione. In Corpus medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum (CMG), ed. D. Nickel. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Giglioni, Guido. 2021. Plantanimal imagination: Life and perception in early modern discussions of vegetative power. In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 325–345. Cham: Springer.
Gimaret, Antoinette. 2011. Les ambiguïtés de l’imaginaire anatomique (XVIe–XVIIe siècles). Cahiers en ligne du GEMCA 2: 3–33.
Goldberg, Benjamin. 2016. William Harvey on anatomy and experience. Perspectives on Science 24: 305–323.
Harvey, William. 1965. An anatomical disquisition on the motion of the heart and blood in animals. In The works of William Harvey, ed. Robert Willis, 1–105. New York and London: Johnson Reprint Corporation.
———. 1981. Disputations touching the generation of animals. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hirai, Hiro. 2005. Alter Galenus: Jean Fernal et son interprétation platonico-chrétienne de Galien. Early Science and Medicine 10: 1–35.
———. 2011. Medical humanism and natural philosophy: Renaissance debates on matter, life and the soul. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
———. 2012. Formative powers, soul and intellect in Nicolò Leoniceno between the Arabo-Latin tradition and the Renaissance of the Greek commentators. In Psychology and the other disciplines: A case of cross-disciplinary interaction (1250–1750), ed. Paul J.J.M. Bakker, Sander W. de Boer, and Cees Leijenhorst, 297–324. Leiden: Brill.
Holmes, Brooke. 2017. Pure life: The limits of the vegetal analogy in the Hippocratics and Galen. In The comparable body: Analogy and metaphor in ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greco-Roman medicine, ed. John Z. Wee, 358–386. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
Joubert, Laurent. 1587. Première et seconde partie des Erreurs populaires, touchant la Médecine et le régime de santé. Paris: Micard.
Kikuchihara, Yohei and Hiro Hirai. 2015. Signatura Rerum Theory. In Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy, ed. M. Sgarbi. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_405-1
Kilgour, F.G. 1957. Harvey’s use of Galen’s findings in his discovery of the circulation of the blood. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 12: 232–234.
Kovacic, Franjo. 2001. Der Begriff der Physis bei Galen vor dem Hintergrund seiner Vorgänger. Stuttgart: Verlag.
Leoniceno, Niccolò. 1506. De virtute formativa. Venice.
Lonie, Ian M. 1981. The Hippocratic treatises ‘On generation’, ‘On the nature of the child’, ‘Diseases IV’. Berlin and New York: De Gruyter.
Nutton, Vivian. 2019. Renaissance Galenism, 1540–1640: Flexibility or an increasing irrelevance. In Brill’s companion to the reception of Galen, ed. Petros Bouras-Vallianatos and Barbara Zipster, 472–486. Boston: Brill.
Ongaro, Giuseppe, et al., eds. 2006. Harvey e Padova. Padua: Antilia.
Pagel, William. 1967. William Harvey’s biological ideas: Selected aspects and historical background. Boston: Karger.
Repici, Luciana. 2000. Uomini capovolti: le piante nel pensiero dei greci. Rome: Laterza.
Riolan the Younger, Jean. 1628–1629. Les Œuvres anatomiques. Paris: Moreau.
———. 1650. Opera anatomica. Vetera, recognita, & auctiora. Paris: Meturas.
Smith, Justin. 2011. Divine machines: Leibniz and the sciences of life. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Temkin, Oswald. 1973. Galenism: Rise and decline of a medical philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Van den Spiegel, Adriaan. 1631 [1626]. De formato foetu liber singularis. Frankfurt: Merian.
Verardi, Donato. 2018. La scienza e i segreti della natura a Napoli nel Rinascimento. La magia naturale di Giovan Battista Della Porta. Firenze: Firenze University Press.
Vinkesteijn, Robert. 2021. The vegetative soul in Galen. In Vegetative powers: The roots of life in ancient, medieval and early modern natural philosophy, ed. Fabrizio Baldassarri and Andreas Blank, 55–72. Cham: Springer.
Acknowledgments
Research for this chapter has been carried out with the support of the Land Niedersachsen Herzog August Bibliothek fellowship and by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation (CNCS – UEFISCDI), project number PN-III-P1-1.1-PD-2016–1496, ‘The Overlooked History of Vegetal Life. From the Vegetative Soul to Metabolism in Early Modern Philosophy and Biomedicine,’ and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodovska-Curie Grant Agreement n.890770, “VegSciLif.” I would like to thank the organizers, Matteo Favaretti Camposampiero and Emanuela Scribano, and the attendees of the conference ‘Galen and the Early Moderns’ for their valuable comments on a previous version of this chapter, Katja Krause, Maria Avxentevskaya and the participants at the seminar ‘Premodern Conversations’ at Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin. This chapter has been completed during a visiting period at MPWIG.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Baldassarri, F. (2022). In the Beginning Was the Plant: The Plant-Animal Continuity in the Early Modern Medical Reception of Galen. In: Favaretti Camposampiero, M., Scribano, E. (eds) Galen and the Early Moderns. International Archives of the History of Ideas Archives internationales d'histoire des idées, vol 236. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86308-1_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86308-1_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-86307-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-86308-1
eBook Packages: Religion and PhilosophyPhilosophy and Religion (R0)