NoteHow to face the new industrial challenge of compatible, sustainable brick production: Study of various types of commercially available bricks
Introduction
Brick, a ceramic product used as building material since ancient times, is still valued for its easy availability of georesources, resistance to loading and environmental stress, and its esthetic quality. During firing, the raw materials, generally a mixture of a body of clay minerals and predetermined fractions of silt and sand (temper), is transformed into a new artificial material in which mineralogical changes occur, similar to those which developed during pyrometamorphism; as regards microstructure, new porosity develops and melts form (Riccardi et al., 1999, Aras, 2004, Cultrone et al., 2004). Many works have been published on case studies of historic interest, with specific focus on the mineralogy and texture of fired samples (Cardiano et al., 2004, Cultrone et al., 2005a), the provenance of raw materials (López-Arce et al., 2003, Maritan et al., 2005) and firing conditions (Setti et al., 2012), as well as on the phase transformations during firing of artificial samples (Dondi et al., 1998, Duminuco et al., 1998, Riccardi et al., 1999, Elert et al., 2003, Aras, 2004, Cultrone et al., 2004, Cultrone et al., 2005b, Maritan et al., 2006, Nodari et al., 2007, Fabbri et al., 2014) and have greatly contributed to our knowledge of the physical and mechanical changes according to raw material composition and firing temperature (Cultrone et al., 2001b, Carretero et al., 2002, De Bonis et al., 2014). Porosity and decay have also been investigated, to evaluate the parameters controlling durability, since bricks, like any other construction material, are affected by various and sometimes combined deterioration phenomena (Valluzzi et al., 2002, Valluzzi et al., 2005, Anzani et al., 2010). Examples are interactions with other materials nearby (Larbi, 2004, Cultrone et al., 2007), environmental conditions, and the presence of soluble salts (Cultrone et al., 2000, Rodriguez-Navarro et al., 2000, Benavente et al., 2003) or ice (Grossi et al., 2007a, Ducman et al., 2011). Nevertheless, although extensive studies on ceramic materials have been carried out, little research has focused on the real needs of brick industries. This work aims to close this gap, in collaboration with the personnel of a brick factory and focusing on actual requirements in industrial research, i.e., the creation of new mixes for specific situations (e.g., restoration of historical buildings) and the promotion of sustainable solutions in terms of saving resources and energy. Replacing some particular types of bricks in a damaged historic structure requires caution in operating in a way which is mechanically and chemically compatible with the undamaged materials and in preserving the overall original appearance (Cardiano et al., 2004). The brick industry is also encouraged to ensure quality, to improve eco-friendly brick production, and to optimize firing conditions, while maintaining the characteristics which make brick a traditional material, in which our cultural identity can be recognized (Cultrone and Sebastián, 2009, Eliche-Quesada et al., 2012, Zhang, 2013, Monteiro and Fontes Vieria, 2014).
Compared with natural stone, brick has the advantage that its technical and esthetic qualities can be modified by changing the composition of raw materials and/or firing conditions to obtain certain properties, depending on the position or function the brick is required to carry out in a given place and environment. Identifying new mix designs for use in historic and modern constructions is a challenge of prime interest for restorers and builders. This work develops a valid multianalytical approach to study the properties of bricks, starting from five different types, four already on the market, in order to have a solid basis on which to tackle the actual industrial challenge of identifying methods and criteria to introduce green solutions to the market and ensure a leadership industry promoting excellence and innovation. Awareness of the close connections among mineralogy, porosity and physical properties can lead to improved quality in the brick industry as a whole, allowing us to take the next steps toward sustainable, compatible production and introducing new materials adapted to particular cultural and environmental contexts.
Section snippets
Materials and methods
Three types of clay raw materials largely adopted from the brick factory SanMarco-Terreal (Noale, Veneto, Italy) were studied: LG (Laminato Giallo, i.e. “Yellow Laminated”), LRSS (Laminato Rosso, “Red Laminated”) and LRS (Laminato Rosa, “Pink Laminated”). From these clays, five types of bricks (GP, N, RSS, RS and R6) were prepared by SanMarco-Terreal according to the “soft mud” method: GP (Giallo Paglierino, i.e., “Straw Yellow”) obtained with LG clay fired at 1050 °C; N (Nero, “Black”) produced
Raw clay materials and dye
Under chemical viewpoint (Table 2) clay LRSS is the richest in SiO2 and LG the poorest; LG has the highest calcium and LOI, indicating that is rich in carbonate. On the basis of XRPD data, clay materials are mineralogically similar, but differ for the percentages of mineral phases (Table 3). Quartz, calcite, dolomite, feldspars s.l., chlorite and illite occur in all samples. Comparisons of X-ray diffraction patterns confirm the higher carbonate content in LG than in the others, due to higher
Conclusions
The multianalytical approach adopted to studying SanMarco-Terreal bricks fired at 600, 950, 980 and 1050 °C highlights close relationships among mineralogy, porosity and physical properties and their behavior in varying stress environments.
The important role of firing on the characteristics of the final products is clear-cut. In the sample fired at the lowest temperature (R6), the absence of new silicates and interconnections due to melting made it the weakest in load resistance and decay tests.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by Research Group RNM179 of the Junta de Andalucía and by Research Project MAT2012-34473. The research benefitted by funding from INPS - Gestione Ex Inpdap (Direzione Regionale Veneto), which provided the PhD “Doctor J” Grant over the period 2012-2015. The authors are grateful to Gabriel Walton who revised the English test, and to Emilio Galán and one anonymous referee, whose comments improved the manuscript.
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